design-postgres-tables

# PostgreSQL Table Design

## Core Rules

- Define a **PRIMARY KEY** for reference tables (users, orders, etc.). Not always needed for time-series/event/log data. When used, prefer `BIGINT GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY`; use `UUID` only when global uniqueness/opacity is needed.
- **Normalize first (to 3NF)** to eliminate data redundancy and update anomalies; denormalize **only** for measured, high-ROI reads where join performance is proven problematic. Premature denormalization creates maintenance burden.
- Add **NOT NULL** everywhere it’s semantically required; use **DEFAULT**s for common values.
- Create **indexes for access paths you actually query**: PK/unique (auto), **FK columns (manual!)**, frequent filters/sorts, and join keys.
- Prefer **TIMESTAMPTZ** for event time; **NUMERIC** for money; **TEXT** for strings; **BIGINT** for integer values, **DOUBLE PRECISION** for floats (or `NUMERIC` for exact decimal arithmetic).

## PostgreSQL “Gotchas”

- **Identifiers**: unquoted → lowercased. Avoid quoted/mixed-case names. Convention: use `snake_case` for table/column names.
- **Unique + NULLs**: UNIQUE allows multiple NULLs. Use `UNIQUE (...) NULLS NOT DISTINCT` (PG15+) to restrict to one NULL.
- **FK indexes**: PostgreSQL **does not** auto-index FK columns. Add them.
- **No silent coercions**: length/precision overflows error out (no truncation). Example: inserting 999 into `NUMERIC(2,0)` fails with error, unlike some databases that silently truncate or round.
- **Sequences/identity have gaps** (normal; don't "fix"). Rollbacks, crashes, and concurrent transactions create gaps in ID sequences (1, 2, 5, 6...). This is expected behavior—don't try to make IDs consecutive.
- **Heap storage**: no clustered PK by default (unlike SQL Server/MySQL InnoDB); `CLUSTER` is one-off reorganization, not maintained on subsequent inserts. Row order on disk is insertion order unless explicitly clustered.
- **MVCC**: updates/deletes leave dead tuples; vacuum handles them—design to avo